Religion and theology

And it ought to be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.

Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince

• The theology of the Henrician Church of England has changed many times since breaking with the Catholic Church
• Departures from official theology have been violently punished at every level of society – sometimes the official line has not been clear until the punishment
• Many characters have strong opinions on what the Church’s theology should be
• Henry ensured he is the ultimate authority in the Church
• Henry has used both the Convocation of Bishops and Parliament to adjust the Church’s theological position
• Negative discussion of non-Christian religions is not part of the game
• Our theology is divided into nine key Articles

Religion in the Tudor Court

Religion is political

At the start of the event, it is 11 years since the Henrician Church of England separated from the Catholic Church in Rome. The Henrician Church’s theology has varied from Reformed positions to ‘Catholic without the Pope’. The King’s Queens and advisors have influenced these changes. Sometimes doctrine has changed due to genuine belief, sometimes to destroy rivals and often to make revenue for the Crown by dissolving monasteries and seizing personal wealth. Theology is political.

Characters at court disagree about what official Theology the Henrician Church of England should adopt. Some are Reformers, who want a more Lutheran church, or Henricians, who are content with the current theology or Conservatives, who want more Catholic ways.

Religion is personal

As well as being the focus of intense politics, religious beliefs are important personally. Many characters will have strong convictions around a key Article of theology or a whole ideology. Some characters would rather die than compromise their beliefs*.  Others will happily bend to the King’s tyranny in public but keep their true beliefs in their heart.
*A good example of this in real history is Thomas More who was executed for refusing to take the oath acknowledging Parliament’s Act of Supremacy which made Henry head of the Church of England. In our alternate history, Katherine of Aragon manages to protect him and save his life.

Polygamy exists, but is uncommon

Henrician polygamy allows a noble man to marry two or more women if a Bishop has assented that there is a godly reason for him to do this. He should treat all women well as wives in their own right. Few people at court have taken this up so far, but King Henry and Lord Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford both have. Opinions privately differ about whether any of these reasons were really ‘godly’ rather than motivated by politics or a man’s personal urges. But anybody wishing to look like a loyal Henrician would tend to be publicly in support of polygamy.

When it comes to inheritance, people assume a man’s legitimate heirs should inherit in order of birth, regardless of mother. As polygamy is quite new, inheritance law hasn’t been rigorously tested in practice. Henry’s personal line of inheritance is not so simple and is tied up in various Acts of Parliament, Wills, and potential debates about legitimacy.

No negative discussion of other religions

While other religions very clearly exist at this time, they’re not a feature of the event – England will remain Christian. Our content and themes rule out any negative discussion of non-Christian religions.

The Nine Articles of theology

There are Nine key Articles of theology which we feel give a good representation of debate at the time. Each is at its heart a yes/no matter, with room for minor details*. Any religious settlement for England should resolve these Articles clearly. No former religious settlements has lasted long so there is likely no settlement that will please all characters. 
Knowledge of theology in any more detail is not necessary, but players are welcome to do background reading and debate them as much as they like.
*For example, Henricians strictly believe that confession, absolution and penance are helpful but not essential. This could be simplified to ‘yes’ in a Convocation’s new Articles or spelt out in more detail.

• Head of the Church
  Is the Pope head of the Church, inheriting his positioning in an unbroken line from St Peter the Apostle? Or:
  Is the monarch of a realm the highest authority before God?
• Polygamy
  Can Christians take multiple wives if there is a godly reason? Or:
  Is marriage a bond between only two people for a lifetime?
• Bible in Latin only
  Should the Bible be restricted to the clergy and some nobility, guarded in Latin? Or:
  Should the Bible be available in English to all citizens, for them to read and inform their conscience?
• Clerical celibacy
  Should priests be allowed to marry? Or:
  Should priests follow the example of Jesus Christ in being married to the Church?
• Intervention for the souls of the dead and Purgatory
  Are interventions for the souls of the dead useful? Must Purgatory exist, and masses for the dead and the sale of Indulgences release people from Purgatory? Or:
  Does Purgatory even exist!? Is it a superstition not justified by scripture, and people either go to heaven or hell based on their lives?
• Transubstantiation
  Does the bread and wine given during Mass/Holy Communion actually turn into the literal body and blood of Jesus? Or:
  Are they symbolic representations and worshipping bread and wine borders is idolatry?
• Salvation through good works
  Do good works contribute to personal salvation? Or:
  Do Christians achieve salvation by faith in god alone?
• Confession, penance and absolution
  Are confession, penance (acts of contrition prescribed by the confessing priest) and absolution from a priest necessary for the forgiveness of sins? Or:
  Is that a matter between the individual Christian and God?
• Saints and images
  Is it helpful to have holy iconography, and to pray to saints for intercession? Or:
  Are these pagan-influenced idolatrous superstitions that are detrimental to the worship of God?

Religious ideologies

• Are sets of theological Articles with a large backing and a clear name (Catholicism, etc.)
• Each character starts with an ideology
• Many courts share the same religious ideology

Religious ideologies such as Catholicism and Lutheranism agree on sets of key theological Articles. Most characters believe in one of these to a level appropriate to their personal convictions – this will be clear in their brief. Some characters would rather die than compromise their religious ideology. Some characters care greatly about a specific article but are happy to compromise on others.
Some characters are more interested in being loyal to Henry than caring about a personal theology.

	Catholic	Henrician CofE	Reformer	Lutheran
Pope is head of the Church	Yes	No	No	No
Polygamy	No	Yes	Yes	No
Bible only in Latin	Yes	No	No	No
Clerical celibacy	Yes	Yes	No	No
Souls of the dead + Purgatory	Yes	No	No	No
Transubstantiation	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Salvation through good works	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Confession, penance and absolution	Yes	Yes	No	No
Saints and images	Yes	Yes	No	No

Religious history

Summary

The Church in England has been under the control of the Roman Catholic Church for centuries. The Church runs schools, hospitals and legal courts. It has representatives among all classes of people. It claims huge sums in tithes and taxes, paying them back to the Pope.

Henry split with Rome and instituted polygamy to marry Anne Boleyn. The theological position of the Church was left quite vague. English clergy fell back on their own beliefs, running from strongly Lutheran to strongly Catholic. In 1536, the Convocation of Bishops passes The Ten Articles to try to bring lasting consistency to the Henrician Church. Instead, it codifies a hasty compromise between all the positions.

This does not last long. In 1537, Convocation pass The Bishop’s Book which returns to a moderately Catholic approach. In 1539, a Bible in English is created for Church services, suggesting Reformer positions are gathering support. However, Parliament passes the Six Articles; these set a more Catholic or Conservative position.

In 1543, the King’s Book is written by King Henry. He uses Parliament to restrict reading of the Bible to noble classes.

Theology at the start of the event

At the start of the event, the Church’s theology is essentially Catholicism with Henry in place of the Pope. Church services are in English with an English bible. Polygamy is possible for noblemen with a Bishop’s assent.

For men, the Bible may only be read by clerics, noblemen, the gentry and richer merchants.

For women, the bible may be read by the gentry or nobility and only in private. Women may not discuss theology in public on pain of execution.

Appendix: Detailed theological history

You have read enough to play any character at this point! The following isn’t crucial for anybody to read, but it may provide additional interest to clergy and other religiously interested characters. As an offgame note, it’s as accurate as we can make it to the real theological history, with polygamy replacing divorce. It really is that chaotic and wild.

pre Henry	England has been Catholic and loyal to Rome since the introduction of Christianity
1531	Act of Supremacy passed by Convocation. The Congregation of the Church of England declare King Henry the Supreme Head of the Henrician Church of England, and pay £100,000 for their crimes in usurping his authority to the Pope, but add “as far as the law of Christ allows” to the declaration. King Henry banishes Queen Katherine from court; her daughter Princess Mary goes with her. Thomas More quits as Lord Chancellor and is replaced with Thomas Cromwell.
1532	Submission of the Clergy in Convocation The Convocation of Catholic Church in England gave up their power to formulate church laws without the King’s licence and assent.
1533	Polygamy declared legal and moral Archbishop Cranmer leads the Congregation of bishops in determining plural marriage legal and moral within the new Henrician Church: They find they cannot rule the King’s first marriage invalid, as there is no evidence against the Queen as a good and true wife. They instead validate the vast body of evidence that virtuous men of great power and need can take other wives for the purposes of begetting heirs and choose from their heirs who should take precedence in inheritance.
1534	Act for Submission of the Clergy passed in Parliament Parliament, instructed by the King, orders the Church of England to renounce its authority to make church law without royal licence; the Convocation was to submit all existing canons to the scrutiny of a committee, which would be appointed by the King. Half of the members would be from Parliament (eight from each house) and half from the clergy. This committee would proclaim void all canons it found offensive and the Convocation was to retain the remaining canons with the King’s consent. King also has parliament pass several acts forcing the church to pass taxes formally paid to the Pope to him (Peter’s Pence act) and taking the power to appoint bishops. They also gave the Archbishop of Canterbury (Cranmer) the power to issue dispensations formerly given by the Pope and forbade English clergy from visiting religious assemblies abroad.
1534	Act of Supremacy in Parliament Parliament acknowledges King Henry as Supreme Head of the Henrician Church of England. All office holders must swear an oath admitting Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, acknowledging Anne Boleyn as Queen and agreeing with the order of succession in the first Act of Succession. Rejecting the oath was made treasonous, leaving the refusers at risk of jail or execution and loss of all titles and fortune. Katherine of Aragon and her household refuse to take the oath; Thomas More and his family join her household for fear of the penalties of refusing the oath.
1536	Dissolution of the Monasteries begins The start of the administrative and legal processes by which Henry VIII disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries. He took their wealth and land, sold it or gave it to his favourites. In doing this, he gains more wealth than all the money combined taxed by English monarchs since William the Conqueror.
1536	Convocation passes The 10 Articles. The initial break with Rome caused a period of ‘doctrinal confusion’ with factions attempting to shape the church from Lutheran Protestants to Catholicism with Henry as Pope. The Ten Articles are a rushed compromise between the two: 1) The Bible and the three ecumenical creeds are the basis and summary of true Christian faith. 2) Baptism imparts remission of sins and is necessary for salvation, even in the case of infants. It condemns the opinions of Anabaptists as heresy. 3) The sacrament of penance, with confession and absolution, is necessary to salvation. 4) That the body and blood of Christ are really present in the Eucharist. 5) Justification is by faith, but good works are necessary. 6) Images can be used as representations of virtue and good example or remind people of their sins but are not objects of worship. 7) Saints are to be honoured as examples of life and as furthering the prayers of the faithful. 8) Praying to saints is permitted, and holy days should be observed. 9) The observance of various rites and ceremonies are good, but do not forgive sin. E.g clerical vestments, sprinkling of holy water, bearing of candles on Candlemas, giving of ashes on Ash Wednesday 10) It is a good and charitable deed to pray for the dead. However, the doctrine of purgatory is biblically uncertain. Abuses related to purgatory are rejected e.g. that papal indulgences or masses for the dead can save souls from purgatory
1536	Pilgrimage of Grace begins. A popular uprising that began in Yorkshire and spread throughout Northern England. It was a serious protest against Henry VIII’s break with the Roman Catholic Church, the dissolution of the lesser monasteries, and the policies of the King’s chief minister, Thomas Cromwell. The rebels demanded the end of the Ten Articles, an end to the dissolution of religious houses, an end to taxes in peacetime, and a purge of heretics in government. The rebel force was so large, the Duke of Norfolk forces sent against them were hugely outnumbered and had to negotiate with them instead of fighting/arresting them. Norfolk promised a general pardon and a Parliament to be held at York within a year, as well as a reprieve for the abbeys until the parliament had met. These promises were broken. In February 1537, the rebellion restarted and was immediately violently put down by the Duke of Norfolk.
1537	The Bishop’s Book passed by Convocation. Thomas Cromwell, the King’s vicegerent in spirituals, convened the Convocation of bishops which produced a book called The Institution of the Christian Man known as The Bishops’ Book. This moved the Church’s theology to a more Conservative position. It preserved the semi-Lutheranism of the Ten Articles: the articles on justification and purgatory remained unchanged. The sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist and penance were declared “instituted of Christ, to be as certain instruments or remedies necessary for our salvation”. The other traditional sacraments of the Catholic church (confirmation, marriage, holy orders and extreme unction) were restored, but placed in a separate section to emphasize “a difference in dignity and necessity.”
1538	Henry and Archbishop Cranmer are excommunicated by the Pope.
1539	First approved English Bible printed, called The Great Bible. The first Bible in English is authorised by King Henry VIII of England. It was required to be read aloud in the church services of the Church of England.
1539	Parliament passes the Six Articles The House of Lords created a committee with a religious balance to examine and determine doctrine. After eleven days, the Duke of Norfolk noted that the committee had not agreed on anything and proposed that the Lords examine six doctrinal questions, which eventually became the basis of the Six Articles. The articles reaffirmed Catholic doctrine on most points, with the only victories of reformers being that confession to a priest is optional rather than required. Henrician theology became more Conservative. Unlike the Ten Articles, the Six Articles were passed in law giving them statutory authority. Harsh penalties were attached to violations of the Articles: Denial of transubstantiation was punished by burning without an opportunity to recant. Denial of any of the other articles was punished by hanging or life imprisonment: 1) Eucharist is the true body of Christ without transubstantiation 2) Laity do not need to be given both kinds of Eucharist (i.e clergy get bread and wine, laity get only bread) 3) Vows of chastity need to be observed as part of divine law; Clerical celibacy is compulsory 4) Private masses are required by divine law 5) Polygamy is acceptable but not required. 6) Confession to a priest is acceptable but not required
1543	The King’s Book passed by Parliament. The King’s Book, or The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christian Man is written by Henry to direct the Church of England’s beliefs. It was issued by the King’s authority and also statutorily enforced by the Act of Parliament – in particular, this restricted the reading of the Bible to clerics, noblemen, the gentry and richer merchants. Only women of gentry or nobility were only allowed to read the Bible, and then only in private. They could not discuss theology in public on pain of execution. Other points were: • Rejection of the doctrine of justification by faith • The body and blood of Christ are really present in the Eucharist. • The sacrament of penance, with confession and absolution, is necessary to salvation. • The seven sacraments: (baptism, the Eucharist and penance, confirmation, marriage, holy orders and extreme unction) are equally beneficial to salvation. • Images can be used as representations of virtue and good example or remind people of their sins but are not objects of worship. • Saints are to be honoured as examples of life and as furthering the prayers of the faithful. • Praying to saints is permitted, and holy days should be observed. • But differs from traditional Catholic practise on: • Polygamy is acceptable • It was better to pray for all Christian people, alive or dead than give masses for the dead. • The doctrine of purgatory is biblically uncertain, and godly people should refrain from speaking about it.
1545	King Henry accepts the first delegation from the Catholic Church since 1534.